Document Specific
References used by documents within this Web site.
or General Listing:
Berliner, D.C. (1986, August/September). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. Educational Researcher, 5-13.
Bransford, J. D., & Vye, N.J. A perspective on cognitive research and its implications for instruction. In L/ B. Resnick & L. E. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research. Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Bruer, J.T. (1993). The mind’s journey from novice to expert. American Educator, 6-15, 38-46.
Hagafors. R., & Brehmer, B. (1983). Does having to justify one's decisions change the nature of the decision process? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 31, 223-232.
Heers, S. T., Marchioro, C. A., Mosier, K. L., & Skitka, L. J. (1994). Automation and accountability in a low fidelity flight task. Presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Nashville, TN.
Reviewed by Jeff Forrest.
This research paper describes observed effects that automated procedural and decision aids have on human error rate. The hypothesis was that pilot crews tend to over-rely on automation to perform tasks and make decisions, instead of using automation as one component of the decision making process. Automation bias is analyzed by examining errors made as a result of automation task demand (automation commission errors), and errors that result from inadequate advisory by the automated system (automation omission errors). The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between cognitive bias, error rate, and criteria of imposed accountability for performance.
A test group was asked to perform a computer simulated tracking task. Each simulation included an Automated Monitoring Aid (AMA) that provided directives relating to task/performance procedures. Besides the AMA, each simulation was equipped with supplemental advisory systems for use in verification of the AMA. Participants where informed that the AMA was not 100% accurate. Reliability of AMA information was pseudo-randomly controlled. Test subjects were assigned to known groups of non-accountability and accountability. The results indicated the following: 1) subjects in the unreliable simulation performed better than the AMA as a result of verification; 2) subjects in the reliable simulation performed slightly better than by performing with no verification; and, as a surprise to the researchers, 3) all groups decreased their verification efforts as the demands of the verification task increased.
The conclusions offered by this study should lead specifically to improved safety and performance by pilot crews operating within the framework of accountability. This can be accomplished by better system design matching the cognitive needs of the end user performing within a framework of accountability. Of prime consideration is the need for additional research for improved design of systems structure and feedback as applied to workload within human-computer dialogues.
Greer, Michael (1992). ID Project Management: Tools and Techniques for Instructional Designers and Developers. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.
Johnson, E. J., Payne, J. W., Schkade, D. A., & Bettman, J. R. (1991). Monitoring information processing and decisions: The MouseLab system. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, The Wharton School.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Freund, T. (1983). The freezing and unfreezing of lay inferences: Effects on impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 448-468.
McCollister, John & Davis,Diann (1996).
The Sky is Home: The Story of Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. Middle Village, NY. Jonathan David Publishers.
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Mosier, K.L., Skitka, L.J., Heers, S.T. (1995). Automation and Accountability for Performance . 8th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. (9 pages, 76K). Available FTP: Hostname:
http://olias.arc.nasa.gov/home-page.html Directory:
http://olias.arc.nasa.gov/publications/OSU_Mosier/OSU_Mosier.html
Mosier, K. L., Skitka, L. J., & Korte, K. J. (1994). Cognitive and social psychological issues in flight crew/automation interaction. Proceedings of the Automation Technology and Human Performance Conference, Sage.
NASA Ames Research Center (1989). Window/PANES: Workload Performance Simulation. Moffett Field, CA: NASA Ames Research Center, Rotorcraft Human Factors Research Branch.
Noble, Douglas (1989). Cockpit Cognition: Education, the Military and Cognitive Engineering.
AI & Society. 3:271-296.
Noble proposes that adoption by the US public school system of military methodology for problem solving has played a central role in shaping the thinking skills and learning strategies of young students. Public schools have historically transferred "militarized" training philosophies into their pedagogy. Military effectiveness and efficiency demand that training programs emphasize the ability of the individual to conform to the machine. "Military cognitive engineers" recognize the application of metacognition as a basis for improvement of reactive skills, as opposed to reflective, critical thinking. The adoption of "militarized" pedagogy by public school systems is responsible for the degradation of education, creating generations of students that do not know how to learn, think, question or solve problems.
Characteristics of military pilot training serve as evidence of the pedagogical path requiring that human intelligence conform to the needs of the machine. Effective and efficient combat decisions can not wait for human reflection. Therefore, pilots have been trained to think reactively to the demands of their work environment, thereby eliminating opportunities for reflective thinking. Reflective thinking has been engineered into the flight deck computer system to model human schemata for pilot task decision making. The logic used in this program became recognized by the military as a "learning tool" for efficient and effective human training. This training has been adopted by the US public school system and apparently is the major cause for young students' ineffectual critical thinking.
Pilot skill effectiveness and efficiency are increased by the intellectual augmentation of "man-computer symbiosis". This symbiosis should not be confused with methodology applied to the improvement of learning and thinking skills. Although useful to military operations, these programs will interfere with the development of reflective thinking skills and should not be adopted by US public schools. Nobel’s work provides the reader with the information necessary to identify and avoid such programs.
Norman, Donald (1993).
Things That Make Us Smart. New York, NY, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
Norman, D.A. (ed.). (1981). Perspectives and Cognitive Science. Hillsdale, NJ. Ablex/Erlbaum.
Perkins, David (1992). Smart Schools. New York, NY. The Free Press.
Sheridan, T. (1988). The System Perspective. In Weiner, E. & Nagel, D. (eds.),
Human Factors in Aviation . San Deiago, Calif: Academic Press.
Walter, D. & Carey, C. (1996). The Systematic Design of Instruction. 4th ed. New York, NY. Harper Collins.
Document Specific:
References used by documents within this Web site.
From the review: A Critical Review of W. M. Adams'
GREEN DEVELOPMENT: environment and sustainability in the third world.
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Redclift, Michael (1987). Sustainable Development - exploring the contradictions. New York, NY. Routledge. Pg.32. (Sustainable Development)
Carley, M. & Christie, I. (1993). Managing Sustainable Development. Minneapolis, MN. University of Minneapolis Press. Pg.18. (Managing Sustainable Development)
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Adams, W. M. (1990). Green Development: environment and sustainability in the third world. London. Routledge.
Sustainable Development. Pg.32-33. op cit.
Fox, Doug (1993, September). Global Climatic Change and Sustainable Development. Air & Waste. Vol. 43. Pg.1202-1205. (Global Climatic Change and Sustainable Development)
Carley, M. & Christie, op cit. Baker, Randall. As quoted in Managing Sustainable Development. Pg.157.
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From Paper:
The Shuttle Challenger Disaster The Shuttle Challenger Disaster
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Groupthink videorecording / written by and produced by Kirby Timmons; produced by Melanie Mihal, Carlsbad, Calif., CRM Films, c1991 25min.
Jarman A. and Kouzmin, A., "Decision pathways from crisis. A contingency-theory simulation heuristic for the Challenger Shuttle disaster", Contemporary Crises, DEC. 01 1990 v 14 n 4.
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Kramer, Ronald C. and Jaska, James A., "The Space Shuttle Disaster: Ethical Issues in Organizational Decision Making", Western Michigan University, Apr. 87, 39pgs.
Launius, Roger D., "Toward an Understanding of the Space Shuttle: A Historiographical Essay. Air Power History, Winter 1992 v 39 n 4.
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NASA Spacelink Challenger Press Release, phone 205.895.0028
Turban, Efraim, Decision Support and Expert Systems, Macmillan Publishing Company, N.Y., N.Y. 1993.
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From Paper - Instructional Design Assignment One, "Antenna Repair"
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Walter, D. & Carey, C. (1996). The Systematic Design of Instruction. 4th ed. p2-11. New York, NY. Harper Collins.
From Paper - "Managing the Development of an Aerospace Educational Program for Children
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Bush, George (Oct. 01 1988). "The Bush Strategy For Excellence in Education";
Phi Delta Kappan, v70 n2 pg 112.
Ms. Kimack, Grace (OCT. 1992). Principal of St. John's Academy, Denver, Colorado, personal interview.
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Stanton, William (1975).
Fundamentals of Marketing. NY, NY. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Ewell, Bob (October, 1992).Creative Solutions,Colorado Springs, personal interview.
as suggested in:
Boone and Kurtz (1992). Management.pg.166. NY, NY. McGraw-Hill, Inc. . NOTE: some of the management terms shown in italics were derived from this source.
Teacher Idea Press (1992). Also see:
Aerospace Curriculum Guide. Alabama State Department of Education, Montgomery Alabama.
as suggested by:
Chase and Aquilano (1973).Production and Operations Management. pg 178. Homewood, Ill. Richard D. Irwin, Inc.
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as suggested by:
Welshans and Melicher (1984). Finance.pg. 128.Dallas, TX. Southwestern Publishing CO.
theory Y, as defined in: Boone and Kurtz (1992).
Management. pg399.NY, NY. McGraw- Hill, Inc.
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Revised: January 12, 2005